UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS. 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA. 


LINING  OF  DITCHES  AND  RESERVOIRS 
TO  PREVENT  SEEPAGE  LOSSES. 


By  ELWOOD  MEAD  AND  B.  A.  ETCHEVERRY 


BULLETIN    No.    188. 

(Berkeley,  Cal.,  June,  1907.) 


SACRAMENTO: 
w.  w.  shannon     ■::::::     superintendent  state  printing 

1907. 


BENJAMIN  IDE  WHEELER,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  the  University. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF. 

E.  J.  WICKSON,  M.A.,  Acting  Director  and  Horticulturist. 

E.  W.  HILGARD,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Chemist. 

W.   A.   SETCHELL,   Ph.D.,  Botanist. 

ELWOOD  MEAD,   M.S.,   C.E.,   Irrigation  Engineer. 

C.  W.  WOODWORTH,  M.S.,  Entomologist. 

R.  H.  LOUGHRIDGE,  Ph.D.,  Agricultural  Geologist  and  Soil  Physicist.    (Soils,  Alkali.) 

M.  E.  JAFFA,  M.S.,  Nutrition  Expert,  in  charge  of  the  Poultry  Station. 

G.  W.  SHAW,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Agricultural  Technologist,  in  charge  of  Cereal  Stations. 

GEORGE  E.  COLBY,  M.S.,  Chemist.     (Fruits,  Waters,  Insecticides.) 

RALPH  E.  SMITH,  B.S.,  Plant  Pathologist  and  Superintendent  of  Southern  California 

Pathological  Laboratory  and  Experiment  Stations. 
A.  R.  WARD,  B.S.A.,  D.V.M.,  Veterinarian  and  Bacteriologist. 

E.  W.  MAJOR,  B.Agr.,  Animal^  Industry. 

F.  T.  BIOLETTI,  M.S.,  Viticulturist.      (Grapes,  Wine,  and  Zymology.) 
H.  M.  HALL,  M.S.,  Assistant  Botanist. 

H.  J.  QUAYLE,  A.B.,  Assistant  Entomologist. 

JOHN  S.  BURD,  B.S.,  Chemist,  in  charge  of  Fertiliser  Control. 

C.  M.  HARING,  D.V.M.,  Assistant  Veterinarian  and  Bacteriologist. 
E.   H.   SMITH,   M.S.,  \ 

H.  J.  RAMSEY,  M.S.,     (      Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 

T.  F.  HUNT,  B.S.,  \ 

R.  E.  MANSELL,  Assistant  in  Horticulture  in  charge  of  Central  Station  Grounds. 

G.  R.   STEWART,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Chemical  Laboratory. 
,  Assistant  in  Soil  Laboratory. 

RALPH  BENTON,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Entomology. 

LUDWIG  ROSENSTEIN,  Laboratory  Assistant  in  Fertilizer  Control. 

ALFRED  TOURNIER,  Assistant  in  Viticulture. 

HANS  C.  HOLM,  Student  Assistant  in  Zymology. 

A.  J.  GAUMNITZ,  M.S.,  Assistant  in  Cereal  Laboratory. 

J.  C.  BRADLEY,  A.B.,  Assistant  in  Entomology. 

D.  L.  BUNNELL,  Clerk  to  the  Director. 


JOHN  TUOHY,  Patron,  )  „,..,*.         m  , 

>  Tulare  Substation,  Tulare. 
J.  T.  BEARSS,  Foreman,         ) 

J.  W.  MILLS,  Horticultural  Assistant  in  Southern  California,  Riverside. 

J.  W.  ROPER,  Patron,  )  „  _,    . .         ~.  „ 

>  University  Forestry   Station,   Chico. 
E.   C.  MILLER  In  charge,       ) 

ROY  JONES,  Patron,  1       University  Forestry  Station,  Santa  Monica. 

N.  D.  INGHAM,  Foreman,.     ) 

VINCENT  J.  HUNTLEY,  Foreman  of  Calif ornia  Poultry  Experiment  Station,  Petaluma. 


The   Station   publications    (Reports   and   Bulletins),   so   long   as 
available,  will  be  sent  to  any  citizen  of  the  State  on  application. 


LININGS  OF  DITCHES  AND  RESERVOIRS 
TO  PREVENT  SEEPAGE  LOSSES, 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  water  which  sinks  into  the  soil  from  ditches  and  reservoirs  is  one 
of  the  chief  sources  of  waste  in  irrigation.  In  gravelly  soils,  or  where 
ditches  cross  gypsum  strata,  the  losses  sometimes  amount  to  more  than 
half  the  total  flow.  Measurements  on  a  large  number  of  ditches,  made 
by  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  show  an  average  loss  on  main 
canals  of  about  one  per  cent  for  each  mile  that  water  is  carried;  on 
laterals  the  loss  amounted  to  between  11  and  12  per  cent  per  mile ;  while 
on  some  California  canals  the  loss  in  a  single  mile  was  64  per  cent.* 
The  water  which  escapes  is  often  worse  than  wasted.  It  collects  in  the 
lower  lands,  fills  the  soil,  drowns  the  roots  of  trees  and  plants,  brings 
alkali  to  the  surface,  and  is  a  prolific  breeding  place  for  mosquitoes. 

On  large  and  costly  aqueducts  or  important  storage  works,  linings 
of  cement,  concrete,  or  asphaltum  may  be  employed  without  the  expense 
being  prohibitive.  But  the  great  bulk  of  these  losses  occur  on  lateral 
ditches  and  small  storage  basins  where  some  simpler  and  cheaper  method 
of  making  the  surface  impervious  to  water  must  be  found;  and  if 
ditches  can  be  lined  with  this  substitute  by  methods  which  can  be 
carried  out  by  farmers  or  unskilled  laborers,  a  great  improvement  in 
irrigation  practice  and  a  marked  increase  in  the  duty  of  water  will 
be  brought  about. 

Muddy  water  soon  silts  up  muddy  ditches,  but  where  the  water  is 
clear  seepage  losses  are  likely  to  be  permanent  and  some  sort  of  lining 
to  stop  this  becomes  an  important  matter.  As  water  drawn  from 
wells  or  reservoirs  is  always  clear,  methods  of  preventing  seepage  are 
live  problems  where  water  is  pumped  or  stored.  Measurements  made 
in  1906  on  a  storage  reservoir  having  a  surface  of  10,000  square  feet 
showed  a  seepage  loss  of  1,000  cubic  feet  per  day.  The  reservoir  is 
filled  by  a  windmill  and  this  loss  was  10  per  cent  of  the  average  quantity 
pumped  each  day — a  loss  too  heavy  to  be  borne.  The  problem  of  this 
reservoir  owner  is  the  problem  of  hundreds  of  irrigators.     Unless  this 

*  Bulletin  158,  U.  S.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  pp.  36-37. 


386  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

leak  in  the  reservoir  can  be  stopped,  the  attempt  to  irrigate  by  pump- 
ing will  be  a  failure ;  but  the  owner  can  not  afford  the  expense  needed 
to  line  the  reservoir  with  concrete  or  asphalt,  because  the  value  of  the 
water  stored  will  not  justify  this  expense.  Puddling  has  been  tried, 
but  there  is  not  enough  clay  in  the  soil,  and  no  other  material  or 
process  has  been  tried  sufficiently  to  make  it  safe  for  him  to  adopt  it. 
His  problem  is,  therefore,  to  find  some  cheap  and  valuable  material 
or  some  process  which  he  can  utilize  at  small  cost  which  will  make  the 
reservoir  hold  water.  There  are  an  unusual  number  of  raw  materials 
found  in  California  which  promise  well,  and  the  richness  of  the  mineral 
wealth  of  the  arid  region  leaves  little  doubt  that  other  things  besides 
cement  and  clay  will  come  into  use  to  prevent  the  leakage  of  reservoirs 
and  ditches.  The  purpose  of  this  investigation  is  to  determine  what 
is  the  relative  merit  and  expense  of  both  those  expedients  which  have 
been  tried  and  those  which  seem  worthy  of  a  trial. 

The  investigation  was  undertaken  by  the  California  Experiment 
Station,  which  was  assisted  at  the  outset  by  the  U.  S.  Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations,  which  furnished  part  of  the  money  expended.  This 
bulletin  gives  the  results  of  the  first  year's  work  and  is  only  a  progress 
report.  The  investigation  will  be  continued  on  a  more  extended  scale 
during  1907.  The  investigations  and  experiments  of  1906  were  carried 
out  by  Prof.  B.  A.  Etcheverry,  of  the  University  of  California,  whose 
report  follows. 

Elwood  Mead. 


LINING   OF   DITCHES   AND    RESERVOIRS.  387 


INVESTIGATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS, 


By  B.  A.  ETCHEVERRY. 


Examination  of  Lined  Ditches  in  Southern  California. — About  1880 
all  surface  waters  iu  southern  California  were  being  diverted  and  used. 
The  heavy  profits  derived  from  irrigation  and  the  rapidly  increasing 
price  of  orange  land  since  then  caused  a -great  demand  for  additional 
water.  The  development  of  the  country  depended  on  water,  which  was, 
and  is  even  more  so  at  present,  the  most  important  question  for  that 
locality.  All  available  water  supply  must  be  developed  and  all  waste 
prevented.  This  meant  the  rapid  development  of  underground  waters 
by  wells  and  tunnels  and  the  storage  of  flood  waters,  and  explains  the 
large  number  of  wells  yielding  probably  a  good  deal  more  water  than 
the  flow  of  surface  water  in  midsummer. 

It  was  here  naturally  that  the  loss  of  water  due  to  seepage  was  first 
felt.  Every  drop  of  water  saved  meant  increased  prosperity.  The 
value  of  water  increased  rapidly  after  1880.  Water  valued  at  $30  per 
miner's  inch  in  1880  had  a  value  of  $300  January,  1883,  and  $720  in 
1888.  This  naturally  meant  better  use  of  water  and  a  higher  duty  of 
water.  The  duty  of  water  increased  to  one  miner 's  inch  for  four  or  five 
acres,  and  has  still  increased  until  at  present  this  duty  for  some  of  the 
best  citrus  lands  is  one  miner's  inch  for  ten  acres. 

Most  of  the  improvements  for  economy  of  water  and  for  the  decreased 
loss  in  transportation  were  started  after  1880.    • 

Canals  were  first  paved  to  prevent  seepage  and  erosion ;  and  to  permit 
the  use  of  an  economical  section.  This  paving  was  then  improved  upon 
by  paving  and  cementing.  Plastering  with  cement  mortar  and  the  use 
of  concrete  for  lining  came  into  use  soon  after. 

At  about  the  same  time  the  use  of  steel  or  cement  pipes  was  intro- 
duced. They  have  since  become  much  in  favor  in  southern  California, 
when  the  volume  of  water  to  distribute  is  not  large,  and  have  to  a  great 
extent  replaced  the  smaller  open  ditch. 

While  for  these  parts  of  southern  California  there  is  no  doubt  but 
what  the  use  of  cement  in  some  form  will  always  be  the  most  generally 
used  material  for  canal  lining,  it  is  expensive  and  its  use  is  only  justi- 
fiable where  the  value  of  water  is  very  high,  or  where  excessive  seepage 
must  be  stopped. 


388  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

For  districts  where  water  is  plentiful  the  seepage  loss  may  not  be  of 
so  much  consideration,  or  at  least  not  so  great  but  that  a  concrete  lining 
would  be  prohibitive.  The  canals  or  even  the  laterals  of  these  districts 
carry  several  times  more  water  than  the  largest  canals  of  southern 
California.  The  lining,  if  concrete  were  used,  would  have  to  be  stronger 
and  the  cost  large. 

Other  considerations  besides  seepage  must,  however,  be  studied  before 
one  can  decide  whether  it  will  be  beneficial  to  line  the  water  channels, 
and  other  linings  should  also  be  investigated. 

A  good  lining  should  fulfill  the  following  requirements:  (1)  It 
should  stop  seepage;  (2)  It  should  prevent  gophers  and  squirrels  from 
burrowing  through  the  banks;  (3)  It  should  prevent  vegetation;  (4)  It 
should  prevent  scouring;  (5)  It  should  not  be  easily  damaged  by  the 
tramping  of  cattle  and  by  the  action  of  the  weather. 

No  doubt  concrete  will  answer  for  all  these  requirements,  but  cheaper 
linings  in  many  cases  will  be  more  economical.  It  was  mainly  to 
inquire  into  this  that  these  investigations  were  undertaken,  in  May, 
June,  July,  and  August,  1906. 

These  investigations  include  first  a  journey  around  some  of  the  irri- 
gated districts  of  California  to  learn  the  different  types  and  methods  of 
lining  canals  in  use,  their  cost  and  detail  of  construction. 


CANAL  LININGS  USED  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

Naturally  the  best  types  of  canal  linings  are  in  southern  California, 
very  little  having  been  done  in  other  parts  of  the  State. 

A  study  of  the  various  types  shows  that  they  can  be  classified  as 
follows : 

(a)  River  boulders  set  in  lime  mortar  and  pointed  with  cement 
mortar.  • 

(&)  River  boulders  or  cobbles  placed  behind  a  wooden  form  and 
cemented  together  with  cement  mortar  rammed  between  the  cobbles. 

(c)  Cement  concrete  from  3  to  6  inches  thick. 

(d)  Cement  mortar  plaster  y2  to  1  inch  thick. 

(e)  Heavy  road-oil. 
(/)   Clay  puddle. 

RIVER  BOULDERS  SET  IN  LIME  MORTAR  AND  POINTED  WITH  CEMENT  MORTAR. 

This  method  has  been  extensively  used  in  the  San  Bernardino  Valley. 
Good  examples  of  this  type  are  seen  in  Redlands,  Crafton,  Highlands, 
and  San  iVrnardino.  This  type  of  lining  was  probably  introduced  in 
L882  to  1883,  when  the  Ontario  Colony  Enterprise,  receiving  its  water 
liom    the   San    Antonio   Canon,   paved   its   canal, 


LINING   OF   DITCHES   AND   RESERVOIRS.  389 

bottom,  6  feet  wide  at  the  top,  and  21/1>  feet  deep,  with  rocks  laid  in 
hydraulic  lime  water  and  plastered  over  with  cement  mortar.  This 
lining  was  8  inches  thick  and  cost  about  60  cents  per  lineal  foot,  or 
about  6  cents  per  square  foot,  which  is  very  much  cheaper  than  the 
average  cost  per  square  foot  of  this  type  of  work  since  then.  This  low 
cost  is  probably  accounted  for  by  the  cheap  Chinese  labor  used  at  that 
time,  the  rate  being  $1.25  per  day;  also  the  small  cost  of  the  lime, 
$1  a  barrel,  and  the  rock  not  having  to  be  handled  at  great  distance. 

The  cement  plaster  was  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  cement 
to  three  parts  of  sand  with  lime  water.    The  bottom  was  finished  with  a 


FIG.    1.     New   Bear  Valley  Water  Company's   Canal ;    lined  with   cobbles   set   in 
lime  mortar  and  pointed  with  cement. 

thin  coating  of  cement  and  sand  in  equal  quantities.     The  lime  mortar 
was  one  part  of  lime  to  five  parts  of  sand. 

This  type  of  lining,  while  largely  used  since  then,  is  now  employed 
mainly  where  repairs  are  necessary.  Accurate  data  as  to  cost  and  details 
of  construction  are  difficult  to  obtain.  A  great  deal  of  this  work  has 
been  replaced  with  pipes.  The  new  Bear  Valley  Water  Company  and 
also  the  Crafton  Water  Company  have  good  examples  of  this  construc- 
tion. The  ditch  known  as  the  Highlands  Ditch,  and  the  Old  Redlands 
Ditch,  known  as  the  South  Fork  Ditch,  both  diverting  water  from  the 
Santa  Ana  River,  are  paved  and  cemented.  While  parts  of  these  ditches 
were  first  paved  with  cobbles  or  rocks  without  the  use  of  lime  or  cement 
mortar,  or  paved  with  cobbles  or  rock  faced  with  cement  mortar  without 
the  use  of  lime  mortar,  the  more  recent  type  of  construction  consists 
mostly  of  cobbles  laid  in  lime  mortar  and  pointed  or  faced  with  cement 


390  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

mortar.     The  method  of  construction  used  by  the  Bear  Valley  Water 
Company  is  as  follows: 

The  ditch  is  excavated  to  a  definite  cross-section,  this  cross-section 
being  of  such  size  that  after  receiving  a  lining  of  about  1  foot  in  thick- 
ness it  will  be  the  required  finished  cross-section.  After  the  excavation, 
mold  frames  with  boards  are  used  to  guide  the  lining  work;  between 
the  mold  boards  and  the  sides  is  a  space  of  1  foot  which  is  the  thickness 
of  the  lining.  Into  this  space  a  layer  of  cobbles  about  1  foot  in  thick- 
ness is  built,  with  the  interstices  filled  with  small  stones ;  a  grout  formed 
of  one  part  of  lime  to  seven  parts  of  clean,  sharp  sand  is  then  poured 
in  and  tamped  in  order  to  fill  all  voids.     The  lining  of  the  sides  is 


IH^* 

fe^g— J** 

%^ %    ^** 

■■■■■-■:.- 

■ 

4*. 

*     '*> 

\      <    . 

FIG.    2.     Hemet   Land   and   Water   Company's   Canal ;    lined   with   cobbles    set   in 

cement  mortar. 

built  up  in  this  manner  in  consecutive  layers  1  foot  at  a  time.  The 
bottom  is  usually  paved  before  the  sides,  the  mold  frame  resting  on  .the 
bottom.  The  lining  is  generally  allowed  a  few  days  to  harden,  then  the 
mold  boards  are  removed  and  the  cement  plaster  put  on.  This  plaster 
is  a  mixture  of  one  part  cement  to  three  parts  of  clean  sand  and  is 
applied  about  %  inch  thick,  giving  a  smooth  surface. 

The  size  of  the  ditch  thus  lined  was  2%  to  3  feet  wide  at  the  bottom, 
about  4  feet  deep,  and  side  slopes  of  about  1  on  4.  (Fig.  1.)  The 
approximate  cost  was  15  cents  a  cubic  foot.  The  price  of  labor  and 
materials  was  as  follows:  Cement,  $3.75  a  barrel;  lime,  $1.30  a  barrel ; 
ordinary  labor,  $2  per  nine-hour  day;  masons,  $3.50  to  $4  per  eight- 
hour  day. 

The  method  used  by  the  Grafton  Water  Company  was  very  similar. 


LINING   OF   DITCHES   AND    RESERVOIRS. 


391 


The  ditch  was  excavated  with  scrapers  and  shovels.  No  form  was  used 
for  lining ;  the  sides  and  bottom  were  put  in  by  line,  the  cobbles  being 
placed  to  line  and  grade  in  lime  mortar,  the  interstices  between  cobbles 
being  filled  and  chinked.  The  surface  was  evened  off  by  forcing  in 
cement  mortar  with  a  trowel,  and  a  coating  of  this  cement  mortar  about 
]/2  inch  thick  covered  the  sides  and  bottom.  The  rock  lining  was  about 
1  foot  in  thickness.  This  work  was  done  in  1893,  thirteen  years  ago, 
and  was  limited  to  the  intake  canal  (one  mile  long)  of  the  Grafton 
Water  Company.     According  to  one  of  the  former  directors  of  the 


FIG. 


Method  of  lining  the  Ffemet  Land  and  Water   Company's   Canal. 


company  no  repairs  have  been  made  during  these  thirteen  years.  The 
work  is  still  in  good  condition.  The  average  cost  of  this  class  of  lining 
would  probably  be  about  13  cents  per  square  foot.  While  substantial 
and  satisfactory,  a  stronger  and  not  much  more  costly  is  the  next  class 
described. 


RIVER  BOULDERS  OR  COBBLES  SET  IN   CEMENT   MORTAR. 

A  good  example  of  this  work  is  a  section  3Vi»  miles  long  on  the  main 
canal  of  the  Hemet  Land  and  Water  Company.  One  mile  of  this  canal 
has  a  bottom  width  of  4  feet,  a  depth  of  3  feet,  and  a  top  width  of  7 
feet.  (Fig.  2.)  The  remaining  2%  miles  have  a  bottom  width  of  3  feet, 
a  top  width  of  6  feet,  and  a  depth  of  3  feet. 


392  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

The  canal  was  excavated  with  scoop  scrapers  and  shovels.  No  form 
was  used  in  the  excavation,"  the  cross-section  being  finished,  ready  for 
the  lining,  by  the  shovelers.  After  the  excavation,  the  banks  were  well 
moistened  by  letting  the  water  into  the  excavated  canal  and  holding  it 
by  earth  dams.  When  the  banks  were  thoroughly  wet  the  water  was 
drained  out  and  the  lining  put  on. 

The  lining  consists  of  cobbles,  most  of  them  not  less  than  6  inches  in 
dimension,  placed  in  the  cement  mortar.  The  bottom  was  constructed 
first,  the  cobbles  being  laid  in  the  bed  of  cement  mortar  and  the  space 
between  cobbles  well  filled  in  and  finished  smooth  and  to  grade.  This 
cement  mortar  for  the  bottom  consisted  of  one  part  of  cement  to  four 
parts  of  clean  river  sand.    A  little  lime  was  added  to  this  mortar. 

Closely  following  the  lining  of  the  bottom  came  the  lining  of  the 
sides.  (Fig.  3.)  For  this,  mold  frames  and  mold  boards  were  used. 
The  frames  were  placed  5  feet  apart  and  so  constructed  that  the  mold 
boards  were  held  in  place  against  the  frames  by  a  %-inch  iron  rod. 
The  mold  boards  could  be  put  in  one  at  a  time,  and  one  section  20 
feet  in  length  was  finished  at  one  time. 

The  mold  frames  having  been  put  in  position  and  the  lowest  mold 
board  placed  on  each  side,  a  layer  of  cement  mortar  was  spread  on  the 
bottom ;  in  this  mortar  were  embedded  cobbles,  another  layer  of  mortar 
put  on  top  of  these  cobbles,  then  successive  layers  of  cobbles  and  mortar 
until  the  side  lining  was  completed  for  the  section.  Mold  boards  were 
put  on  as  the  lining  was  built  up.  The  mixture  was  also  tamped  during 
construction  to  assure  the  filling  of  all  spaces  between  cobbles.  The 
ingredients  used  for  the  mortar  in  this  lining  of  the  sides  were  one 
part  of  cement  to  six  parts  of  river  sand.  After  the  forms  were 
removed  the  sides  and  bottoms  were  finished  with  a  very  thin  wash  of 
neat  cement. 

The  cost  of  cement  was  $3  a  barrel,  delivered  on  the  grounds.  The 
cobbles  were  close  at  hand.  The  cost  of  labor  was  $1.75  for  common 
labor  per  nine-hour  day  and  $3.50  for  masons  per  nine-hour  day.  The 
total  contract  price  for  excavating  and  lining  the  ditch  was  $25,000, 
or  an  approximate  cost  of  13  cents  per  square  foot,  for  the  lining. 

CEMENT   CONCRETE. 

The  best  examples  of  this  kind  of  construction  are  seen  south  of  Los 
Angeles  near  Orange,  Santa  Ana,  and  Anaheim.  In  this  vicinity  two 
irrigation  companies,  both  diverting  water  from  the  Santa  Ana  River, 
afford  good  illustrations  of  this  efficient  lining.  These  two  companies 
are  the  Anaheim  Water  Company  and  the  Santa  Ana  Irrigation 
Company. 

The  Anaheim  Water  Company  lias  Lined  its  main  canal  and  laterals 


LINING  OF   DITCHES   AND    RESERVOIRS. 


393 


with  a  thickness  of  concrete  varying  from  4  inches  for  the  larger  canal 
to  2  inches  for  the  smaller  laterals.  The  work  of  lining  has  been  done 
very  thoroughly  and  with  great  care.  If  the  canal  is  an  old  earth  ditch 
it  is  prepared  for  the  lining  and  carefully  finished  as  described  below. 


A/ossf    #J 
r/A,  */*//■ 


flarfh  Form  //?  place 


Concrete  form  <n  P/ace 

PIG.    4.     Method    of   lining    the    Anaheim    Water    Company's    Canal 


Lined  c  ana  I  tvh en  comp/ete d 


If  the  canal  is  to  be  constructed  and  then  lined  the  excavation  is  made 
with  shovels,  or  with  teams  where  more  economical,  the  excavation  being 
generally  preceded  by  a  thorough  irrigation  to  settle  and  soften  the 
ground.  The  excavated  cross-section  is  made  larger  than  the  finished 
cross-section  by  the  thickness  of  the  lining.     The  bottom  of  the  ditch 


394  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

is  carefully  graded  and  tamped  so  as  to  give  a  solid,  smooth  surface.  A 
wooden  form  is  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  excavated  ditch.  (Fig.  4.) 
This  wooden  form  is  a  trapezoidal  trough  with  no  bottom,  16  to  20 
feet  long,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  ditch;  to  make  it  rigid  the 
frames  on  which  the  side  mold  boards  are  nailed  are  placed  every  2  feet. 
The  trough  is  placed  in  such  position  that  the  axis  of  the  ditch  coin- 
cides with  the  axis  of  the  form.  Moist  earth  from  the  excavation  is 
shoveled  behind  this  form  and  is  well  tamped  in  successive  layers;  at 
least  6  inches  of  earth  on  each  side  is  packed  solidly  in  this  manner. 
The  earth  form  is  now  removed  and  before  the  earth  has  had  time  to 
dry  the  lining  is  put  on.  For  the  lining  another  form,  smaller  than 
the  earth  form,  is  used.  For  some  of  the  laterals  this  form  was  given 
a  peculiar  shape  (Fig.  4),  with  the  idea  of  strengthening  the  lining, 
and  giving  the  ditch  a  slightly  curved  form  at  the  bottom,  the  corners 
being  rounded.  The  form  is  built  with  the  usual  side  slopes  of  y2  on  1 ; 
the  slope  is  made  flatter  for  the  lower  8  inches,  where  a  slope  of  1  on  1 
is  used.  The  depth  of  the  form  is  equal  to  the  depth  of  the  lined  section 
plus  the  thickness  of  the  concrete.  The  form  for  larger  canals  is 
similar  to  the  earth  form.  It  is  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  finished 
earth  ditch  and  properly  aligned;  the  concrete,  which  is  mixed  rather 
wet,  is  now  thrown  in  the  space  between  the  form  and  the  earth  and  well 
tamped.  The  side  lining  having  been  completed,  the  form  is  removed 
and  the  bottom  lining  put  on.  Wherever  possible  the  concrete  is  kept 
wet  while  setting  by  allowing  water  to  run  in  the  ditch,  and  retaining 
it  by  earth  dams. 

The  concrete  is  made  of  one  part  of  cement  to  seven  parts  of  coarse 
gravel  of  varying  size. 

The  main  canal  which  is  lined  has  a  bottom  width  of  5  feet,  a  depth 
of  4%  feet,  side  slopes  of  %  on  1,  and  the  thickness  of  the  lining  is 
4  inches.  The  cost  per  square  foot  was  approximately  10%  cents.  The 
cost  of  cement  was  $2.85  per  barrel.  The  cost  of  gravel  was  60  cents 
per  cubic  yard,  and  the  price  of  labor  used  in  finishing  the  ditch  $1.75 
per  day.  The  price  of  labor  in  concreting  the  ditch  was  $2.00,  foreman 
$3.00  per  day.  For  a  smaller  canal  of  1%  feet  width,  3  feet  deep,  slopes 
of  y2  on  1,  the  thickness  of  the  lining  was  3  inches  for  the  sides  and 
4  inches  for  the  bottom,  and  curved  or  reinforced  corners.  The  cost 
was  11.4  cents  per  square  foot,  including  excavation.  The  cost  of  labor 
and  material  was  higher— cement  $3.30  per  barrel,  gravel  $1  per  square 
yard,  and  all  labor  $2.00  per  day.  The  approximate  cost  for  finishing 
the  sides  and  bottom  and  for  lining  (excluding  the  main  excavation) 
would  be  10  cents  per  square  foot  for  a  4-inch  lining.  A  corresponding 
cost  for  a  3-inch  lining  (including  finishing  and  lining)  would  be 
about  8  cents  per  square  foot. 


LINING   OF    DITCHES   AND   RESERVOIRS. 


395 


Some  of  the  smaller  laterals  are  8  inches  at  the  bottom  and  18  inches 
in  depth,  side  slopes  %  on  1.  A  lining  2  inches  thick  costs  nearly  6 
cents  per  square  foot. 

The  Santa  Ana  Valley  Company  has  lined  a  portion  of  its  main 
canal  above  the  town  of  Olive,  in  Orange  County  (Fig.  5)  ;  the  lining 
is  a  good  example  of  this  kind  of  work.  The  canal  is  10y2  feet  wide  at 
the  bottom,  4%  feet  deep,  and  15  feet  wide  at  the  top.  The  lining  is 
2y2  to  3  inches  in  thickness  and  was  constructed  in  very  much  the  same 
manner  as  the  work  of  the  Anaheim  Union  Water  Company.  The  cost 
of  preparing  the  sides  and  bottom  for  the  concrete  lining  and  of  lining 
was  8  cents  per  square  foot. 


FIG.   5.      Santa  Ana  Valley  Company's  Canal ;  lined  with  cement  concrete. 


CEMENT    MORTAR. 

This  method  is  probably  used  more  extensively  in  southern  California 
than  all  the  other  methods  combined.  It  has  proven  very  efficient  and 
its  cost  is  small.  Examples  of  this  class  of  lining  are  numerous  all 
through  the  irrigated  districts  of  southern  California.  Some  of  the 
best  types  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Riverside,  where  the  three  irrigation 
companies — the  Gage  Canal  Company,  the  Riverside  Water  Company, 
and  the  Jurupa  Company — have  used  it  extensively.  The  lining  usually 
consists  of  a  cement  mortar  plaster,  varying  frcm  y2  to  1  inch  in  thick- 
ness. Various  methods  are  used  in  preparing  the  canal  for  the  lining 
and  in  applying  the  lining. 

The  Gage  Canal  Company  began  making  improvements  on  its  main 
canal  in  1886 ;  from  1886  to  1890  this  was  reconstructed,  the  total  length 


396 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


being  20  miles.  In  1890  the  control  of  the  Gage  Canal  Company  passed 
to  the  Riverside  Trust  Company.  The  conditions  prevailing  at  that 
time  are  fully  discussed  by  Mr.  Irving,  the  engineer  of  the  company, 
in  the  report  of  Irrigation  Investigations  for  1901  (part  2),  prepared 
by  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.  The  conditions  were  those  usually 
encountered  by  other  systems  where  the  canals  are  not  lined,  viz : 

1.  Serious  breaks  in  the  canal,  causing  large  waste  of  water  and 
inconvenience   to   irrigators.     Large   fills   were   always   in   danger   of 


FIG.    6a.     Method   of   lining   canals   used   by    Gage   Canal   Company. 


FIG.    6  b.     Gage   Canal   in  cut  and  in  fill. 


breaking,  because  of  settlement  of  the  ground  and  because  of  the  holes 
dug  in  the  banks  by  burrowing  animals. 

2.  Rapid  growth  of  weeds,  which  decreased  the  velocity  of  flow  of  the 
water,  thus  diminishing  the  carrying  capacity. 

3.  Large  losses  of  water  due  to  seepage. 

In  1890  it  was  decided  to  remedy  these  conditions  by  making  an 
experiment  in  canal  lining  by  applying  a  cement  mortar  plaster  on  the 
sides  and  bottom  of  the  canals.  The  method  used  as  described  by  Mr. 
Irving  and  supplemented  by  information  given  by  Mr.  Mylne,  the 
present  engineer  of  the  company,  is  as  follows: 


LINING  OF   DITCHES   AND   RESERVOIRS.  397 

Method  of  Cutting  and  Preparing  the  Water  Channel  for  the  Lining 
(Fig.  6) . — The  grade  stakes  were  located  on  the  banks  at  a  given  distance 
from  the  top  of  the  sloping  sides,  usually  1  foot.  These  grade  stakes 
were  spaced  at  intervals  of  20  feet.  A  level  rod  or  cross-section  rod  of 
sufficient  length  to  reach  from  one  bank  to  the  other  was  held  at  right 
angles  to  the  ditch,  with  one  end  on  the  grade  stake  and  the  correspond- 
ing stake  set  on  the  other  bank.  The  location  of  the  bottom  stakes  was 
obtained  by  measuring  from  this  rod,  by  which  means  they  were  placed 
in  alignment  and  to  grade  every  20  feet.  A  line  was  stretched  at  the 
bottom  between  the  20  feet  grade  stakes,  and  the  bottom  was  then  cut 
to  grade.  Strips  of  iron,  1  inch  wide  and  y±  inch  thick,  and  about 
equal  in  length  to  the  length  of  the  sloping  sides,  were  placed  on  the 
sides  every  3  feet,  extending  up  and  down  the  slopes,  the  slope  given 
them  being  the  slope  of  the  finished  ditch.  They  were  set  in  position  by 
the  use  of  a  specially  constructed  device  as  illustrated,  which  gives  the 
correct  slope,  the  grade  line  giving  the  proper  position  for  the  lower 
end  of  the  iron  rod. 

These  iron  strips  were  set  every  3  feet  along  the  slopes.  A  sharp 
iron  straight  edge,  a  little  over  3  feet  in  length,  was  used  to  shave 
off  the  irregularities  between  them;  or  if  below  the  alignment,  the 
depression  was  filled  in  and  well  tamped.  Usually  there  were  two 
gangs  of  men;  the  rough  finishers  came  first  and  removed  the  larger 
irregularities,  tamping  the  sides  and  bottom;  then  the  smooth  finishers 
brought  the  surface  exactly  true. 

Method  of  Lining. — The  cement  men  usually  followed  the  finishers, 
about  a  half  day  later.  If  the  earth  had  dried,  it  was  usually  well 
sprinkled.  Wooden  strips  l1/?  inches  in  width,  %  inch  thick,  and  equal 
in  length  to  the  width  of  the  sloping  sides,  were  placed  flatwise  on  the 
slopes.  They  were  placed  3  feet  apart,  and  served  as  guides  to  a  straight 
edge  which  assured  a  uniform  thickness  of  %  inch  mortar. 

The  mortar  was  mixed  on  top  of  the  bank  in  galvanized  iron  portable 
mixing  boxes,  and  spread  uniformly  between  the  wooden  strips  on  the 
slopes.  With  the  straight  edge  as  a  guide,  all  irregularities  were  re- 
moved, and  the  mortar  was  finally  compacted  with  the  trowel.  After 
the  slopes  had  been  lined  the  bottom  lining  was  put  on.  A  good  lining 
%  inch  in  thickness  was  thus  obtained.  The  bottom  width  of  the  canal 
varies  from  5  to  10  feet,  and  the  side  slopes  are  1  on  1,  the  depth  being 
3y2  to  4  feet.  (Fig.  7.)  The  lining  is  extended  on  each  side  of  the 
top  of  the  slope  to  a  distance  of  5  inches. 

The  plaster  is  composed  of  one  part  of  good  Portland  cement  to  four 
parts  of  clean  sharp  sand. 

The  cost  of  this  class  of  work,  including  preparation  of  the  slopes  and 
bottom,  and  their  lining,  varies  from  3%  to  4  cents  per  square  foot. 


398 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


The  Riverside  Water  Company  has  plastered  a  large  portion  of  its 
water  channels  in  a  very  similar  manner,  the  cost  being  nearly  the  same. 


FIG. 


Gage   Canal ;   lined  with  cement  mortar. 


The  Jurupa  Canal  is  lined  with  cement  plaster;  the  thickness  of  the 
lining,  however,  is  only  14  to  %  incn-     (Fig-  8.)     The  earth  ditch  was 


FIG.    8.     Jurupa   Canal ;    lined  with   cement   mortar. 

do1  broughl  to  grade  as  accurately,  nor  the  sides  finished  as  smoothly, 
as  for  the  Gage  Canal  Company.  The  water  channel  was  trimmed  ap- 
proximately will)  shovels;  the  sides  and  bottom  were  then  sprinkled  and 


LINING   OF   DITCHES   AND   RESERVOIRS.  399 

the  mortar  spread  with  trowels  to  a  uniform  thickness  as  nearly  as 
possible.  The  cost  of  this  lining  was  not  obtainable,  but  very  similar 
work  used  by  the  Escondido  Irrigation  District  for  some  of  its  channels 
cost  from  15  to  20  cents  per  square  yard,  or  from  1.66  to  2.22  cents  per 
square  foot. 

A  smaller  ditch  near  Hemet,  the  Little  Valley  Ditch,  2  feet  wide  at 
the  bottom,  iy2  feet  deep,  with  side  slopes  of  1  on  1,  was  lined  with 
cement  mortar  plaster  1  inch  thick  at  the  bottom,  and  y2  inch  thick 
at  the  sides.  The  composition  of  the  mortar  for  the  bottom  was  one  part 
of  California  cement  to  four  parts  of  sand ;  for  the  sides  it  was  one  part 
of  cement  to  six  parts  of  sand.  The  cost  of  preparing  the  channel  and 
lining  was  18  cents  per  lineal  foot,  or  2.88  cents  per  square  foot. 

The  San  Jacinto  Water  Company,  also  in  Riverside  County,  has  its 
main  canal  lined  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Gage  Canal ;  the  length  of 
the  canal  is  11  miles,  the  bottom  width  is  3  feet,  the  depth  2y2  feet, 
and  the  side  slopes  1  on  1. 

That  this  type  of  lining  has  been  successful  there  is  no  doubt.  Mr. 
Irving,  former  engineer  for  the  Gage  Canal  Company,  states  in  his 
report  that  after  a  test  of  ten  years  the  lining  more  than  justified  their 
expectations.  The  cost  of  repairs  after  four  years'  use  was  very  small, 
less  than  y2  of  1  per  cent  of  the  capital  cost  in  four  years. 

That  there  are  conditions  under  which  this  lining  will  not  be  entirely 
satisfactory  has  also  been  demonstrated  as  follows : 

1.  For  water  channels  constructed  in  heavy  adobe  soil,  subject  to 
heaving,  it  has  cracked  badly.  This  is  noticeable  in  parts  of  the  canal 
of  the  San  Jacinto  Water  Company. 

2.  For  water  channels  built  in  fills,  where  the  ground  is  subject  to 
settlement. 

A  better  construction  in  this  case  is  to  line  the  canal  with  masonry 
of  the  type  "a"  or  "b,"  previously  described.  The  Gage  Canal  has 
used  masonry  very  similar  to  class  "a"  for  the  lining  of  canals  when 
in  fill  or  made  ground.  This  masonry  is  about  6  inches  in  thickness  and 
is  composed  of  building  stone  laid  in  mortar  whose  ingredients  are  one 
part  of  Portland  cement,  three  parts  of  fat  lime,  and  twenty  parts  of 
sharp  sand.  All  external  surfaces  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  water 
are  coated  with  %  inch  of  cement  mortar,  composed  of  one  part  of 
cement  to  three  parts  of  sand.  The  cost  of  this  class  of  work,  which  is 
very  similar  to  class  "a,"  but  not  so  thick,  is  about  11%  cents  per 
square  foot. 

The  thin  plaster  lining  is  subject  to  rupture  where  gophers  or 
squirrels  burrow  behind  it,  or  under  it,  as  the  lining  has  not  sufficient 
strength ;  also  if  storm  water  washes  out  some  of  the  back  filling. 

It  is  probable  that  this  kind  of  lining  would  not  resist  the  climate  of 


400 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


a  country  subject  to  very  cold  weather,  in  which  case  the  stronger  lining 
with  proper  drainage  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  water  behind  the 
lining-  would  be  needed. 


FIG.   9.     Unlined  canal  near  Lemoore,   showing  vegetation. 


FIG.   10.     Unlined  canal  near  Lemoore,  showing  vegetation. 


HEAVY    ROAD    OIL. 

The  instances  where  road  oil  has  been  used  for  canal  or  reservoir 
lining  are  few.  The  only  example  of  its  use  for  canal  lining  in  Cali- 
fornia known  by  the  writer,  is  at  Lemoore,  in  Kings  County,  on  the 
Madison  branch  of  the  Lemoore  Canal  and  Irrigation  Company. 


LINING  OF   DITCHES   AND   RESERVOIRS.  401 

In  this  locality  the  canals  are  shallow,  the  velocity  of  the  water  is 
small,  and  the  growth  of  weeds  and  aquatic  plants  in  the  canals  is 
abundant.  (Figs.  9  and  10.)  A  large  resistance  is  offered  to  the  flow 
of  water,  which  means  a  small  carrying  capacity,  and  a  large  loss  due  to 
seepage  and  evaporation.  It  is  necessary  for  the  irrigator  to  clean 
these  frequently,  sometimes  as  often  as  once  every  two  weeks.  The 
labor  and  cost  are  considerable. 

Mr.  McLaughlin,  secretary  of  the  Lemoore  Irrigation  Company,  tried 
as  an  experiment  the  use  of  heavy  road  oil  to  prevent  the  growth  of 
vegetation.    The  oil  was  applied  in  November,  1905,  on  a  length  of  iy2 


FIG.    11.     Canal  near  Lemoore  lined  with  oil. 

miles  of  the  main  canal.  The  canal  is  about  20  feet  wide  and  about  1 
foot  in  depth.     (Fig.  11.) 

The  oil  used  was  crude  petroleum  from  the  Sunset  District  southwest 
of  Bakersfield  and  contains  a  large  percentage  of  asphaltum.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  11%  on  the  Beaume  scale.  This  oil  when  cold  will  not  run 
freely.  It  was  used  hot  and  sprinkled  with  an  ordinary  road  sprinkler. 
The  ditch  had  been  previously  cleaned  of  all  vegetation  and  allowed  to 
dry.  The  road  sprinkler  was  driven  first  on  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  and 
then  on  the  banks.  The  oil  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  V/2  gallons  per 
square  yard.  The  oil  was  then  thoroughly  harrowed  in  until  it  was 
well  mixed  with  the  soil,  which  was  very  sandy. 

When  examined  in  May,  1906,  about  seven  months  after  the  applica- 
tion of  the  oil,  there  was  no  vegetation  in  this  part  of  the  canal,  while 
other  parts  of  this  same  canal  which  had  received  no  oil  and  had  been 


402  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

cleaned  two  weeks  previously  showed  a  vigorous  growth  of  vegetation. 
The  contrast  is  very  striking  and  clearly  shows  the  value  of  oil  in 
preventing  the  growth  of  aquatic  plants.  Not  only  was  this  part  of  the 
canal  free  from  vegetation,  but  it  was  only  about  one  third  full,  while 
the  canal  full  of  weeds  had  to  be  full  to  carry  the  same  amount  of  water. 

An  objection  might  be  made  to  the  use  of  oil  for  canal  lining  because 
of  the  fear  that  the  oil  might  be  carried  to  the  fields  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  injure  the  crops.  Mr.  McLaughlin  states  that  in  this  case  they  had 
no  trouble  from  this  source. 

An  example  of  the  use  of  oil  for  lining  reservoirs  is  found  near 
Bakersfield,  where  a  small  reservoir  275  feet  long  and  75  feet  wide  is 
built  in  almost  pure,  coarse  sand.  A  centrifugal  pump  delivered  to  the 
reservoir  2,250  gallons  of  water  per  minute  for  twelve  hours,  and  it 
would  leak  out  as  fast  as  poured  in.  It  was  then  decided  to  use  road 
oil  to  prevent  this  excessively  large  seepage.  185  barrels  of  heavy  oil 
(11  specific  gravity  Beaume  scale)  were  poured  while  hot  on  the  bottom 
of  the  reservoir.  Since  one  barrel  of  oil  contains  42  gallons,  the  rate 
at  which  the  oil  was  applied  was  3.31  gallons  per  square  yard. 

While  for  the  Lemoore  Ditch  the  oil  was  harrowed  into  the  soil,  in  this 
case  the  oil  was  poured  on  the  surface  and  allowed  to  soak  in.  This 
formed  a  tough  asphaltum  crust  of  about  3  or  4  inches  in  thickness. 
The  seepage  was  greatly  reduced  and  now  the  reservoir  can  be  rapidly 
filled  with  the  same  pump. 

Another  example  of  the  use  of  oil  for  lining  a  reservoir  is  near  Los 
Angeles — the  Ivanhoe  Reservoir.  (Fig. 12.)  Here  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  protect  the  sloping  banks  from  the  erosive  action  of  the  waves. 
On  the  slopes  were  spread  3  inches  of  river  sand,  fairly  clean,  and  thin 
oil  (16°  to  18°  Beaume  scale)  was  sprinkled  on  the  sand  and  raked  in. 
The  amount  of  oil  used  was  2.3  gallons  per  square  yard,  or  13.35  per  cent 
of  the  volume  of  the  sand.  The  slopes  of  the  reservoir  were  4  on  1  and 
2y2  on  1.  This  lining  was  being  completed  when  the  writer  examined  it. 
It  has  so  far  answered  in  a  satisfactory  manner  the  purpose  for  which 
it  was  intended.  A  letter  was  addressed  to  Mr.  Wm.  Mulholland,  super- 
intendent of  the  water  department  of  the  city  of  Los  Angeles,  inquiring 
as  to  its  behavior,  and  his  reply,  under  date  of  December  20,  is  as 
follows : 

' '  The  oil  lining  of  the  Ivanhoe  reservoir  has  proven  a  success  with  the 
exception  of  the  southern  embankment,  on  which  the  work  was  poorly 
and  hastily  done.  We  had  a  very  severe  northern  gale  about  a  month 
ago  that  raised  waves  at  sufficient  height  to  spray  clear  over  the  bank, 
although  at  that  time  there  was  fully  4  feet  of  clearance.  The  con- 
tinued action  of  this  storm  for  twenty-four  hours  or  more  cut  many 
holes  in  the  slope,  but  an  examination  of  the  broken  places  showed  that 


LINING   OF   DITCHES   AND    RESERVOIRS. 


402 


the  oil  had  penetrated  but  an  inch  or  two  and  was  hence  insufficient  to 
withstand  such  violence."  Mr.  Mulholland  further  states  that  with 
properly  executed  work  the  method  would  prove  a  complete  success. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  this  case  comparatively  light  oil  was  used.  It 
is  the  writer's  belief  that  heavy  road  oil  would  be  more  efficient  in 
resisting  wave  action,  erosion,  or  scouring  due  to  water. 

From  observations  of  the  behavior  of  oil  on  roads  or  streets  in  resist- 
ing the  erosive  force  of  running  water  during  heavy  rainfall  it  would 
seem  that  an  oil  lining  for  canals  would  allow  a  very  high  velocity. 
Many  oiled  streets  having  a  steep  grade  have  been  constructed  with  the- 
gutters  built  of  exactly  the  same  materials  as  the  street.    These  gutters 


FIG.  12.     Ivanhoe  Reservoir   (near  Los  Angeles),  lined  with  oil. 

during  heavy  rain  storms  have  had  to  carry  a  large  volume  of  water 
and  the  velocity  was  high,  still  the  gutters  were  not  in  the  least  cut  up. 
A  statement  from  Mr.  Theo.  White,  of  Los  Angeles,  who  has  made  a. 
special  study  cf  oiled  roads,  gives  us  an  idea  of  what  might  be  expected 
of  oil  lining  for  ditches :  ' '  The  whole  country  was  flooded  and  it  gave 
us  a  good  test  of  our  oiled  roads.  There  is  a  road  running  into  San 
Bernardino  on  a  grade  of  about  6  per  cent,  about  300  or  400  feet  from 
a  bench  down  into  a  creek  bottom.  The  road  had  been  oiled  a  second 
season  and  there  was  a  good  oiled  surface.  The  water  rushed  down  the 
middle  of  that  road,  because  the  ditches  could  not  carry  such  a  great 
volume  of  it,  and  it  did  not  make  a  scratch  on  the  road,  but  a  half 
mile  south  there  was  a  road  of  about  the  same  grade  which  was  so  badly 
washed  that  it  could  not  be  used  until  it  was  repaired — a  road  that  was 
not  oiled.     Between  Pomona  and  Freeman  there  was  a  great  quantity 


404  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

of  water  came  from  a  cafion  and  struck  the  oiled  road  at  right  angles  at 
one  point.  It  came  from  the  west,  and  on  the  east  side  of  that  road  there 
was  a  margin  of  6  or  8  inches  of  the  surfacing  material  that  the  oil 
had  not  touched.  The  rain  passed  over  the  oiled  surface,  and  when  it 
came  to  that  which  was  not  oiled  it  cut  it  right  out.  Upon  the  same 
road  within  the  city  limits  of  Pomona  the  road  was  surfaced  with  decom- 
posed granite,  packed  down  hard,  and  a  very  nice  road  during  the 
summer,  but  it  had  not  been  oiled.  The  same  storm  cut  it  all  to  pieces. 
On  one  stretch  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  the  road  material  was  fairly 
washed  out  into  the  fields  alongside  the  road. ' ' 

These  examples  and  observations  on  the  use  of  oil  teach  us  that  it 
can  be  used  to  prevent  vegetation  in  the  ditches,  to  greatly  decrease 
seepage  in  the  sandy  soil,  and  to  probably  resist  erosion  due  to  wave 
action,  or  running  water. 

PUDDLED    CLAY   LINING. 

This  method  of  lining  had  not  been  used  to  any  extent  in  the  irri- 
gated districts  investigated,  and  the  writer  could  not  learn  of  any 
systematic  work  of  the  kind. 

The  cost  of  this  lining  would  depend  on  the  distance  the  clay  would 
have  to  be  hauled  and  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  loaded,  and  on  the 
way  the  clay  is  applied. 

Under  the  best  conditions,  clay  being  close  at  hand,  easily  loaded  and 
applied  cheaply,  would  be  very  satisfactory  and  efficient  in  stopping 
seepage.  Probably  the  cheapest  method  of  applying  the  clay  would 
be  to  spread  it  on  the  bottom  and  slopes  when  the  clay  is  soft  and  moist, 
or  if  it  can  not  be  obtained  in  that  condition,  to  spread  it  after  the 
ditch  has  been  wetted  thoroughly  by  damming  up  the  water  and  then 
draining  it  out;  or  to  spread  it  dry  and  then  fill  the  canal  and  drain 
the  water  out.  After  the  clay  has  been  spread  as  uniformly  as  practi- 
cable, the  canal  could  be  fenced  in,  and  cattle  or,  better,  sheep  could  be 
driven  in  the  fenced  area ;  they  could  be  fed  along  the  ditch  and  in 
this  way  would  tramp  the  puddle  thoroughly. 

The  cost  of  such  a  lining  would  be  mainly  the  cost  of  the  clay ;  for  a 
lining  4  to  6  inches  thick  this  cost  would  probably  not  exceed  1  to  1% 
cents  per  square  foot. 


LINING  OF   DITCHES   AND   RESERVOIRS.  405 


EXPERIMENTS  TO  DETERMINE  RELATIVE  EFFICIENCY  OF   CANAL 
LININGS  AS  REGARDS  SEEPAGE. 

The  purpose  of  these  experiments  was  to  determine  the  relative  effi- 
ciency of  canal  linings,  as  regards  seepage  only,  and  not  to  compare 
the  resistance  of  the  lining  to  the  cutting  or  erosive  force  of  running 
water. 

For  this  purpose  twelve  ditches  closed  at  both  ends  were  excavated 
in  earth  of  uniform  texture,  that  they  might  all  be  under  the  same 
conditions.  These  ditches  were  lined  with  the  different  materials  used 
in  California  for  the  lining  of  irrigating  canals.  After  the  ditches 
were  excavated  and  lined  daily  measurements  were  taken  to  determine 
the  rate  of  seepage,  and  from  these  the  relative  efficiency  was  obtained. 

LOCATION   AND   POSITION   OF    DITCHES. 

The  site  chosen  for  the  experiments  is  in  Stanislaus  County,  near 
Modesto,  on  the  University  experimental  farm,  about  3%  miles  east  of 
the  town.  Lateral  No.  1  of  the  Modesto  Irrigation  District  ran  near  the 
south  end  of  the  ditches  and  was  the  source  of  water  supply  for  the 
experiments. 

The  soil  is  a  fine  sandy  loam  and  is  very  homogeneous  to  a  depth  of  2 
feet ;  below  this  some  hardpan  was  found  in  the  north  end  of  the 
ditches.  This  hardpan  only  occurred  in  small  quantities  and  was  in  a 
soft  condition.  It  could  be  plowed  and  removed  with  scrapers.  It  is 
to  be  regretted  that  a  site  with  a  more  sandy  soil  was  not  available,  as  the 
results  might  have  been  more  conclusive. 

The  ditches  were  parallel  and  ran  north  and  south,  at  right  angles  to 
Lateral  No.  1.  (Fig.  13.)  The  south  ends  of  the  ditches  were  at  approx- 
imately the  same  distance  from  this  lateral,  so  that  the  seepage  from  it. 
if  any,  would  affect  each  ditch  equally. 

A  wooden  flume  built  with  1-inch  by  12-inch  redwood  lumber,  running- 
parallel  to  the  lateral  and  along  the  south  end  of  the  ditches,  carried 
the  water  from  the  lateral  to  the  ditches ;  a  gate  in  the  flume  was  pro- 
vided for  each  ditch. 

The  ditches  were  at  the  same  elevation,  that  the  effect  of  underground 
water  might  be  equal,  and  were  all  2y2  feet  deep,  with  side  slopes  of 
iy2  on  1,  and  a  bottom  width  of  2  feet.  A  side  slope  of  1%  on  1  was 
used  because  the  wet  earth  in  the  unlined  ditches  and  the  puddle  in  the 
puddled  ditch  would  not  stand  on  a  steeper  slope,  and  mainly  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  oiling  the  slopes  if  they  had  been  steeper.  The 
length  of  the  ditches  at  the  top  was  50  feet,  the  ends  having  also  a 
slope  of  1%  on  1 ;  the  bottom  length  was  42%  feet.  The  top  bank  width 
was  4%  feet,  making  a  depth  of  14  feet  between  the  ditches,  center  to 
center. 


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LINING  OF   DITCHES   AND   RESERVOIRS.  407 

METHOD   OF    CONSTRUCTION. 

The  site  was  not  exactly  level.  It  was  thought  best  to  make  it  so, 
that  the  ditches  might  be  more  nearly  under  the  same  conditions.  The 
land  was  irrigated  and  plowed  and  the  earth  from  the  higher  part  of  the 
plot  was  removed  with  Fresno  scrapers  and  carried  off  the  site.  The 
ditches  were  all  in  cut.  After  the  surface  was  made  level,  the  grade 
stakes  were  located  and  the  excavation  of  the  ditches  begun.  Each 
ditch  was  plowed  deeply  and  the  earth  removed  at  first  with  Fresno 
scrapers,  but  as  the  bottom  was  reached  the  smaller  scrapers  (scoop 
scrapers)  were  used.  In  this  manner  the  ditches  were  excavated  roughly 
to  the  required  cross-section.  The  total  volume  of  excavation  was 
approximately  500  cubic  yards  and  the  total  cost  was  $95,  or  at  the 
rate  of  19  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

LININGS  TO  BE  USED. 

The  linings  which  it  was  thought  advisable  to  try  in  the  experiment 
were: 

1.  Cement  concrete  similar  to  that  used  by  the  Santa  Ana  Water 
Company  and  the  Anaheim  Water  Company. 

2.  Cement  mortar  and  cement  plaster  1  inch  thick  as  used  around 
Riverside  by  the  water  companies  ( Jurupa,  Gage,  and  Riverside)  and  in 
several  other  localities  in  southern  California. 

3.  Cement  lime  concrete.  It  was  thought  that  the  addition  of  some 
lime  to  take  the  place  of  part  of  the  cement  in  the  concrete  similar  to 
No.  1  would  perhaps  make  the  concrete  more  water  tight  and  also 
slightly  cheaper  in  some  localities. 

4.  Puddle. 

5.  Road  oil  in  various  proportions  per  square  yard  of  surface  and 
also  as  a  mixture  of  oil  and  gravel.  The  extensive  use  of  oil  and  its 
success  in  road  oiling  when  properly  used,  especially  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia, where  in  many  cases  the  oiled  streets  are  almost  as  good  and 
even  in  a  few  cases  better  than  asphaltum,  made  it  advisable  to  try 
oil  in  several  ways. 

For  a  good  oiled  road,  a  good  foundation  and  a  well-rolled  wearing- 
surface  are  necessary.  The  quantity  of  heavy  road  oil  necessary  should 
not  exceed  iy2  gallons  to  the  square  yard. 

For  canal  lining,  the  conditions  are  somewhat  different  from  those 
found  in  road  construction.  A  good  foundation  is  not  necessary.  It 
is  impracticable  to  roll  the  slopes  and  beds,  and  even  if  practicable,  the 
cost  might  not  justify  it.  The  lack  of  rolling  must  be  made  up  by  using 
more  oil,  and  in  these  experiments  a  greater  quantity  of  oil  was  used 
per  square  yard  than  is  ordinarily  used  on  roads.     Mixtures  of  oil  and 


•408  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

gravel  were  also  used  in  the  experiments,  and  while  they  were  costly, 
they  were  at  the  same  time  unsatisfactory,  proving  very  poor  linings 
for  stopping  seepage,  as  will  be  shown  later. 

The  order  in  which  the  ditches  were  planned  at  first  is  as  follows, 
the  ditches  being  numbered  from  east  to  west : 

No.  1.     Lined  with  a  mixture  of  heavy  road  oil  and  gravel  in  the 


FIG.  14a.     Method  of  using  templet. 

FIG.  lib.      Distributing   flume — Gate — Measuring   post. 

proportion  of  one  part  of  oil  to  eight  parts  of  gravel.  The  lining  was 
3%  inches  thick. 

No.  2.     Earth  (no  lining). 

No.  3.  Lined  with  a  mixture  of  heavy  road  oil  and  gravel  in  the 
proportion  of  one  part  of  oil  to  six  parts  of  gravel.  The  lining  was 
2%  inches  thick. 

No.  4.     Heavy  road  oil  sprinkled,  using  3%  gallons  per  square  yard. 

No.  5.     Earth  (no  lining). 


LINING   OF   DITCHES   AND   RESERVOIRS. 


409 


No.     6.     Thin  oil  sprinkled,  using  2\<>  gallons  per  square  yard. 

No.     7.     Clay  puddle,  3%  inches  thick. 

No.     8.     Earth  (no  lining). 

No.     9.     Cement  mortar,  1  inch  thick. 

No.  10.     Cement  concrete,  2%  inches  thick. 

No.  11.     Earth  (no  lining). 

No.  12.     Cement  lime  concrete,  2y2  inches  thick. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  arranging  the  ditches  as  above,  there  are  eight 
ditches  lined  and  four  earth  ditches  with  no  lining.  Each  earth  ditch 
has  an  adjacent  lined  ditch  on  each  side,  so  that  in  case  the  seepage  from 
the  four  earth  ditches  was  unequal,  the  seepage  in  the  lined  ditches 


FIG.    15.     Method  of  using  templet  to  finish   trenches. 

could  be  compared  with  the  seepage  from  the  adjacent  (or  nearest) 
earth  ditch.  The  lined  ditches  would  also  be  affected  more  nearly 
equally  by  the  seepage  from  the  earth  ditch. 


METHOD  OF  FINISHING  DITCHES. 

After  the  excavation  with  teams  the  ditches  were  finished  by  hand  in 
the  following  manner  (Fig  14)  :  Pieces  of  timber,  2  inches  by  3  inches, 
were  placed  at  the  center  of  the  banks  between  ditches,  and  extending 
parallel  to  them  from  one  end  of  the  ditch  to  the  other;  these  pieces 
of  timber  were  placed  in  the  banks  and  made  level.  The  top  of  these 
timbers  was  at  the  same  level  as  the  banks.  Frames  or  templets  were 
built,  as  illustrated,  of  the  same  size  as  the  finished  ditch,  ready  for 
the  lining.  Four  of  these  frames  were  used,  the  same  one  being  used 
for  the  four  earth  ditches  and  for  the  ditches  where  the  oil  was  sprinkled 


410  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

on  the  slopes  and  bottom.  A  second  form  was  used  for  the  cement 
mortar  lined  ditch ;  this  form  was  larger  than  the  previous  one,  allowing 
1  inch  for  the  lining.  The  third  form  was  made  large  enough  so  that 
the  ditch  finished  with  this  form,  after  being  lined  with  a  2%-inch 
lining,  would  be  of  the  same  cross-section  as  the  earth  ditch.  The  fourth 
form  was  used  where  the  ditch  was  to  be  lined  with  a  31/2-inch  lining. 

These  frames  were  used  in  the  following  manner  (Fig.  15)  :  Begin- 
ning at  one  end  the  frame  was  placed  in  the  ditch  and  the  side  slopes 
and  bed  were  cut  down  until  the  top  piece  of  the  frame  would  rest  on 
the  two  pieces  of  timber  on  the  banks.  The  frame  was  then  moved 
forward  on  these  guides  and  the  cross-section  was  cut  down  with  spades 
to  the  proper  size.  The  slopes  were  finished  first  and  the  earth  cut 
from  the  slopes  was  removed  with  a  scoop  scraper.  The  cost  of  finish- 
ing was  about  1  cent  per  square  foot. 

METHOD   OF  LINING. 

No.  1.  The  oil  was  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about  180°  Fahr., 
at  which  temperature  it  would  flow  easily.  This  heated  oil  was  mixed 
with  the  gravel  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  oil  to  eight  parts  of 
gravel  by  volume.  The  mixing  was  done  with  rakes  and. the  mixture 
was  very  uniform.    The  sides  were  lined  first. 

Pieces  of  timber  3%  inches  thick  were  placed  on  the  slopes  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis  of  the  ditch,  about  every  10  feet.  The  oil-gravel 
mixture  was  carried  in  wheelbarrows  and  dumped  on  the  slopes  between 
these  timbers.  A  straight  edge  about  12  feet  long,  extending  from 
one  timber  to  the  other  and  worked  up  and  down  the  slope,  regulated 
the  thickness  of  the  lining  to  3^  inches.  The  mixture  was  tamped 
while  being  placed  in  position. 

No.  3.  This  ditch  was  lined  in  exactly  the  same  manner.  The 
mixture  used  contained  one  part  of  heavy  Bakersfield  oil  to  six  parts  of 
gravel.  The  thickness  of  the  lining  was  only  2y2  inches;  the  slope 
timbers  being  therefore  2%  inches  thick  instead  of  3%  inches  thick, 
as  for  No.  1. 

No.  4.  This  ditch  was  lined  with  the  same  heavy  oil.  The  oil  was 
heated  to  a  temperature  of  180°  Fahr.,  and  was  sprinkled  or  poured 
on  the  slopes  with  a  3-gallon  watering  pot,  with  the  rose  sprinkler 
flattened  so  as  to  throw  a  flat  stream  or  sheet  of  oil  on  the  side  of  the 
ditch.  The  oil  was  applied  mostly  on  the  top  of  the  slope,  and  as  it 
ran  down  the  slope  it  was  gradually  absorbed  by  the  ground — some  of  it 
reaching  the  bottom.  An  excess  of  oil  accumulating  at  the  bottom  was 
dragged  up  the  slopes  by  using  a  stick  about  8  feet  in  length  to  which 
a  2-foot  piece  of  timber  was  nailed,  at  right  angles,  at  one  end,  and  to 
this  piece  was  nailed  a  couple  of  sacks  to  be  used  as  a  mop.    If  the  oil 


LINING   OF   DITCHES   AND   RESERVOIRS.  411 

is  not  applied  in  large  quantities  at  once,  but  instead  several  successive 
light  applications  are  made,  it  will  not  be  found  necessary  to  use 
this  mop. 

The  oil  was  not  raked  in;  the  object  sought  for  was  to  have  the  oil 
form  a  thoroughly  saturated  crust ;  while  if  it  was  raked  or  plowed  inr 
the  oil  may  have  been  disseminated  through  too  thick  a  layer  to  form  a 
water-tight  crust. 

No.  6.  The  sixth  ditch  was  sprinkled  with  lighter  oil  in  exactly  the 
same  manner  as  the  fourth  ditch,  using  2%  gallons  per  square  yard. 

No.  7.  The  seventh  ditch  was  lined  with  clay  puddle.  The  clay 
was  difficult  to  obtain,  having  to  be  hauled  about  three  miles,  which 
made  it  very  costly.  The  clay  contained  fine  silt  and  sand.  It  was 
sprinkled  with  water,  and  when  soft  was  hauled  in  wheelbarrows  and 
applied  in  the  same  manner  as  the  oil-gravel  mixture.  The  thickness 
of  the  lining  was  Sy2  inches. 

No.  9.  The  ninth  ditch  was  lined  with  cement  mortar,  composed  of 
one  part  of  cement  to  five  parts  of  gravel.  The  lining  being  1  inch 
thick,  the  scantlings  or  guides  placed  on  the  slopes  were  only  1  inch 
thick. 

No.  10.  This  ditch  was  lined  with  cement  concrete  2%  inches  thick, 
composed  of  one  part  of  cement  to  seven  parts  of  gravel  and  crushed 
rock,  in  equal  quantities. 

No.  12.  The  twelfth  ditch  was  lined  with  cement  lime  concrete  2y2 
inches  thick,  composed  of  %  part  of  cement,  %  part  of  lime,  and  seven 
parts  of  gravel  and  crushed  rock  in  equal  quantities. 

Before  lining  with  cement  mortar,  cement  concrete,  and  cement  lime 
concrete,  the  slopes  and  bed  of  the  ditches  were  well  wetted  by  sprink- 
ling. These  three  linings  were  also  kept  wet  for  several  days  after 
the  construction. 

The  oil  ditches  had  been  finished  about  ten  days  before  the  water  was 
turned  into  them.  This  was  necessary  for  the  oil  to  soak  in  well  and 
also  for  the  lighter  volatile  parts  of  the  oil  to  evaporate.  The  water 
was  first  turned  in  on  July  23,  1906,  and  observations  were  then  started. 

METHOD  OF  OBSERVATION. 

The  ditches  were  filled  each  morning  to  a  depth  of  2  feet  (approx- 
imately), the  measurements  being  taken  as  soon  as  filled.  Measure- 
ments were  again  taken  late  in  the  afternoon  and  also  the  next  morning 
before  refilling  the  ditches.  The  instrument  used  to  take  the  measure- 
ments consisted  of  a  wooden  post,  2  inches  by  3  inches,  which  was  driven 
firmly  in  each  ditch  at  the  south  end.  The  top  of  the  post  was  about 
3  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  A  right-angle  screw  hook,  with  the 
shorter  arm  filed  to  a  point,  was  screwed  into  the  post.    The  depth  from 


412  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

the  bottom  of  the  ditch  to  the  end  of  the  hook  was  2  feet.  This  served 
as  a  guide  in  filling  the  ditch,  each  ditch  being  filled  as  nearly  as  possible 
up  to  this  hook.  For  an  exact  measurement  a  piece  of  steel  about  5 
inches  long,  %  inch  thick,  and  %  inch  wide,  was  screwed  at  the  top  of 
the  post  and  at  right  angles  to  it.  This  piece  of  steel  projected  about 
:2  inches  beyond  the  post  and  its  upper  edge  was  beveled.  This  edge  was 
the  index  from  which  the  measurements  were  taken.  (Fig.  146.)  The 
measurements  being  taken  with  a  plumb-bob  attached  to  a  steel  tape, 
the  steel  tape  was  placed  next  to  the  index  and  the  plumb-bob  lowered 
until  the  point  of  the  bob  touched  the  water.  Accurate  measurements 
could  thus  be  taken  to  %  of  a  hundredth  of  a  foot  (.005  foot) . 

Evaporation. — The  evaporation  was  determined  by  means  of  a  gal- 
vanized iron  tank  placed  at  the  north  end  of  the  ditches,  between  ditches 
No.  6  and  No.  7.  Measurements  were  taken  in  the  morning  and  in  the 
afternoon  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  ditches. 

From  the  observations  taken  beginning  with  the  23d  and  extending 
until  the  28th  of  July,  it  was  found  that  the  lining  of  ditches  No.  1  and 
No.  3  was  entirely  unsatisfactory,  as  the  seepage  in  them  was  larger 
Than  in  the  earth  ditches  with  no  lining.  It  is  probable  that  the  water 
percolated  through  this  lining  and  was  carried  away  through  gopher 
and  squirrel  holes  under  the  lining.  In  the  earth  ditches  gopher  and 
squirrel  holes  were  found,  but  could  be  stopped ;  but  this  oil  and  gravel 
mixture  had  sufficient  strength  not  to  break  through  where  the  holes 
were,  and  they  could  not  be  discovered. 

From  the  observations  during  these  few  days  it  was  found  that  the 
seepage  in  all  four  earth  ditches  was  almost  identical,  so  it  was  decided 
to  sprinkle  oil  on  two  of  these  earth  ditches,  using  in  both  cases  less 
oil  than  was  used  on  ditch  No.  4. 

The  gravel-oil  mixture  was  removed  from  No.  1  and  this  ditch  was 
used  as  an  earth  ditch.  Ditch  No.  3  was  not  changed;  measurements 
on  this  ditch  were  continued,  but  it  did  not  improve. 

The  ditches  after  July  28th  were  allowed  to  dry  and  after  the  changes 
were  made  were  in  the  following  order: 

New  Order  of  Ditches. 

No.  1.     Earth  (no  lining). 

No.  2.     Heavy  oil  sprinkled,  2%  gallons  per  square  yard. 

No.  3.  Heavy  oil  and  gravel,  one  part  of  oil  to  six  parts  of  gravel 
{21/2  inches  thick). 

No.  4.     Heavy  oil  sprinkled,  3%  gallons  per  square  yard. 

No.  5.     Earth   (no  lining). 

No.  6.     Thin  oil,  2%  gallons  per  square  yard. 

No.  7.     Puddled  clay,  3%  inches  thick. 


LINING  OF   DITCHES   AND   RESERVOIRS.  413 

No.     8.  Heavy  oil  sprinkled,  3%  gallons  per  square  yard. 

No.     9.  Cement  mortar,  1  inch  thick. 

No.  10.  Cement  concrete,  2%  inches  thick. 

No.  11.  Earth  (no  lining). 

No.  12.  Cement  lime  concrete,  2%  inches  thick. 

The  table  accompanying  this  report  (see  page  414)  refers  to  the 
ditches  after  they  had  been  changed. 

The  water  was  again  turned  into  the  ditches  on  August  6th,  but 
because  of  a  serious  break  in  the  main  canal  of  the  irrigation  system, 
the  water  could  not  be  obtained  again  until  August  28th.  Observations 
were  again  begun  and  were  taken  until  September  10th,  a  period  of 
fourteen  days. 

For  the  first  four  days  the  results  were  not  very  uniform;  probably 
because  some  of  the  ditches  had  held  water  much  better  than  the  others 
during  the  interval  when  no  water  was  available  for  filling  them.  The 
rates  of  percolation  per  hour  given  in  the  table  are  the  rates  of  percola- 
tion for  the  last  ten  days.  This  rate  of  percolation  is  computed  from 
the  readings  taken  each  day.  The  seepage  and.  evaporation  for  each 
ditch,  from  the  time  the  ditch  is  filled  to  the  time  when  the  level  of 
the  water  is  measured  next  morning  just  before  filling,  give  the  total 
seepage  and  evaporation  for  that  time.  Subtracting  from  this  the  loss 
in  level  due  to  evaporation  gives  the  loss  due  to  seepage.  This  quantity 
divided  by  the  number  of  hours  in  which  this  loss  occurred  gives  the 
rate  of  percolation  or  seepage  in  feet  per  hour. 

Consulting  the  table,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  rates  of  percolation 
for  the  three  earth  ditches  were  very  nearly  equal.  However,  in  com- 
paring the  seepage  from  the  lined  ditches  with  the  seepage  from  the 
earth  ditches,  the  relation  is  obtained  by  making  the  comparison  with 
the  nearest  earth  ditch. 

The  efficiency  of  a  ditch  is  the  ratio  between  the  rate  of  percolation 
for  the  earth  ditch  and  the  rate  of  percolation  for  the  adjacent  lined 
ditch ;  or,  efficiency  =  rate  of  percolation  for  earth  ditch  over  the 
rate  of  percolation  for  lined  ditch.  The  larger  this  ratio  the  more 
efficient  or  water-tight  is  the  lining. 

From  the  mean  sinkage  or  mean  percolation  of  the  several  ditches 
is  computed  the  percentage  of  saving  due  to  the  lining  in  each  case.  This 
saving  indicates  the  probable  percentage  of  water  saved  from  the  loss 
which  would  take  place  if  the  ditch  was  not  lined.  The  experimental 
cost  per  square  foot  of  the  lining  is  the  actual  cost  at  which  the  work 
was  done.  It  does  not  include  the  cost  of  finishing  and  preparing  the 
ditch  for  the  lining.    This  cost  was  about  1  cent  per  square  foot. 

The  actual  cost  per  square  foot  for  work  on  a  larger  scale  would 
naturally  be  somewhat  smaller.    The  cost  given  in  the  table  is  estimated 


414 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


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LINING  OF   DITCHES   AND   RESERVOIRS.  415 

from  similar  work  in  existence  and  agrees  with  the  cost  in  the  examples 
mentioned  in  the  first  part  of  this  paper.  For  oil  lining  the  cost 
would  depend  largely  on  the  price  of  oil.  The  price  assumed  in  pre- 
paring the  table  was  2  cents  a  gallon  for  the  oil  and  1  cent  a  gallon 
to  apply  it.  For  cement  concrete  or  cement  mortar  it  is  customary  to 
prepare  the  ditch  and  finish  it  carefully.  The  bottom  and  side  slopes 
are  made  even  and  regular.  The  cost  of  finishing  on  a  large  scale  for 
first-class  work  would  probably  be  less  than  the  actual  cost  on  the 
experimental  ditches  and  would  probably  not  exceed  %  of  a  cent  per 
square  foot. 

For  oil  and  puddle  linings,  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  finish  the 
ditch  so  carefully.  The  removal  of  weeds  may  be  the  only  preparation 
necessary. 

MATERIALS   AND    COST. 

Cement. — California  Portland  cement  (Standard  Brand),  at  $3.00  a 
barrel  in  Modesto. 

Lime. — Roach  Harbor  lime,  at  $2.50  a  barrel  in  Modesto. 

Broken  Stone. — Obtained  from  Folsom,  CaL,  at  $3.00  a  cubic  yard  in 
Modesto. 

Gravel. — Clean  river  sand,  varying  from  1-inch  pebbles  to  coarse 
sand,  obtained  from  Dry  Creek,  about  3  miles  from  the  site  of  the 
experiments,  at  10  cents  a  cubic  yard.  The  charge  for  hauling  to  the 
site  was  $1.50  per  cubic  yard. 

Puddle. — Difficult  to  obtain.  The  only  clay  available  was  about  3 
miles  from  the  site,  and  it  had  to  be  dug  with  picks.  The  charge  for 
loading  and  hauling  was  about  $1.50  per  cubic  yard. 

Heavy  Oil. — Natural  crude  mineral  oil  (10%  to  11%  degrees  Beaume), 
from  the  Sunset  District  near  Bakersfield,  Cal.,  containing  not  less  than 
60  to  80  per  cent  by  weight  of  "  D  "  grade  asphalt.  The  percentage  of 
asphalt  is  not  always  dependent  on  the  specific  gravity.  With  two 
oils  of  the  same  gravity,  one  may  contain  80  per  cent  of  asphalt  and 
the  other  none.  The  oil  was  obtained  at  85  cents  a  barrel  (42  gallons), 
delivered  on  the  site. 

Light  Oil. — Natural  mineral  oil  (16  degrees  gravity)  containing 
about  35  to  40  per  cent  of  "D"  grade  asphaltum.  The  price  was  85 
cents  a  barrel. 

Cost  of  Labor. — All  labor  cost  $2.50  for  an  eight-hour  day ;  one  fore- 
man at  $5.00  for  an  eight-hour  day,  and  a  teamster  with  team  $4.50 
per  day. 


416 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA  —EXPERIMENT   STATION. 


RESULTS  OF  OBSERVATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS. 

A  study  of  the  table  shows  that  cement'  concrete  3  inches  thick 
stopped  86.4  per  cent  of  the  seepage  which  occurred  in  an  earth  ditch 
excavated  in  the  same  material.  This  percentage  would  probably  have 
been  larger  had  the  earth  been  more  porous ;  for  this  would  make  the 
loss  in  earth  ditches  greater,  while  the  loss  from  the  cement  concrete 
ditch  would  probably  not  have  been  increased.  This  is  true  also,  but 
probably  not  to  the  same  extent,  for  the  other  lined  ditches.  However, 
it  is  quite  safe  to  believe  that  in  more  porous  or  open  soil  the  percentage 
saved  by  lining  would  be  greater  than  shown  in  the  table. 


2.     Table  showing  Results  of  Experiments. 


Description  of  lining. 

Average     mean 
sinkageperhr. 
in  feet  exclud- 
ing    evapora- 
tion   

w 
B 
o_ 
a>' 

a 

o 

o 

09 

(B 

•-s 

a 

a 

09 

go 
OR? 

CD  O  ^ 

•  B  " 
;  S» 

;    arc)  i— 

Actual  cost 

of  lining 

per  sq.  ft  * 

Cement  concrete,  3  inches  thick 

.0046 

7.17 

86.6 

Cents. 
83 

Cents. 
7.5 

Cement  lime  concrete,  3  inches  thick 

.0114 

2.90 

65.5 

8.3 

7.5 

Cement  mortar _  _.  .. 

.0121 

2.73 

63.3 

3.88 

3.25-3.50 

Heavy  oil,  3§  gallons  per  square  yard 

.0176 

2.02 

50.4 

120 

1.20 

Clay  puddle,  3i  inches  thick 

.0185 

1.78 

47.8 

3.90 

1.20 

Heavy  oil,  3  gallons  per  square  yard ... 

.0220 

1.50 

38.0 

1.00 

1.00 

Heavy  oil,  2^  gallons  per  square  yard 

.0239 

1.37 

27.3 

.77 

.77 

Thin  oil,  1\  gallons  per  square  yard 

.0329 

f .0329 1 

1 
.0355  \ 

1.08 

7.3 

1.00 

.80 

Earth  (no  lining) 

1.00 

0.00 

,.0330  J 

♦Excluding  the  preparation  of  the  ditch.    (Last  two  columns.) 

While  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  cement  concrete  is  the  most  efficient 
as  regards  seepage,  it  is  also  the  most  expensive,  being  more  than  six 
times  the  cost  of  the  heavy  oil  lining  (3%  gallons  per  square  yard), 
which  saves  50.4  per  cent  of  the  water  which  would  seep  were  the 
ditch  not  lined.  This  saving  with  the  concrete  ditch  is  86.6  per  cent, 
or  1%  times  as  large.  Where  water  is  very  valuable  there  is  no  doubt 
but  that  the  concrete  ditch  is  more  permanent  and  economical.  But 
where  the  water  is  not  so  scarce  and  a  little  waste  will  do  no  damage, 
the  expense  of  lining  the  ditch  with  oil  may  be  justified,  while  a 
more  expensive  lining  would  be  impracticable. 


LINING   OF   DITCHES   AND    RESERVOIRS.  417 

The  question  will  come  up :  *  *  Is  it  economical  to  use  oil  on  a  ditch  to 
save  50  per  cent  or  less  of  the  water  which  is  being  lost  in  ditches  not 
lined?"  Perhaps  there  is  a  great  deal  of  water,  and  in  many  irrigated 
districts  the  waste  of  water  seeping  from  the  canals  and  laterals  while- 
large  is  small  compared  with  the  larger  waste  due  to  over-irrigating 
the  fields  and  to  poor  methods  of  irrigation.  These  conditions  will  no> 
doubt  better  themselves  as  California  becomes  more  settled  and  the 
water  is  more  economically  used  and  more  valuable.  But  even  under 
the  present  conditions  the  advantage  of  lining  a  canal  is  not  alone  the 
decrease  in  seepage ;  other  factors  should  be  considered,  as  mentioned  in 
the  first  part  of  this  paper.  (1st)  The  prevention  of  growth  of  vegeta- 
tion is  an  important  item  and  is  quite  an  expense,  when  in  most  cases, 
the  ditch  or  lateral  must  be  cleaned  out  several  times  during  an  irriga- 
tion season,  (2d)  The  resistance  to  scouring,  on  which  depends  the 
velocity  which  the  water  can  be  given.  (3d)  The  prevention  of 
squirrels  and  gophers  from  burrowing  into  the  banks  and  bottom  of 
ditches. 

That  oil  will  prevent  vegetation  and  the  burrowing  of  animals  on  the 
banks  and  bottom  of  the  ditch  is  clearly  shown  by  the  example  near 
Lemoore,  previously  mentioned. 

That  oil  will  prevent  scouring  to  a  great  extent  and  will  allow  a  muck 
higher  velocity  of  flow  of  water  than  the  earth  ditch  may  be  expected, 
when  we  consider  its  resistance  to  wave  action  at  the  Ivanhoe  Reservoir,, 
and  the  resistance  of  oiled  roads  to  cutting  under  the  action  of  running 
water.  This  toughness  of  oil  lining  was  also  noticed  in  filling  the  ex- 
perimental ditch  each  morning.  When  the  water  carried  by  the  wooden 
flume  discharged  into  each  ditch  through  the  gate  it  had  a  fall  of  at 
least  one  foot.  It  was  difficult  to  prevent  the  sloping  ends  of  the  earth 
and  puddle  ditches  from  being  badly  cut  up  by  the  erosive  force  of  the 
falling  water.  These  ends  had  to  be  well  protected  with  heavy  canvas, 
and  even  the  erosion  could  not  be  altogether  prevented.  The  ditches, 
lined  with  oil  resisted  the  erosion  and  showed  no  cutting,  although  they 
were  not  protected  with  canvas. 

A  letter  from  the  superintendent  of  the  Modesto  Irrigation  District, 
dated  January  21,  1907,  states  that  the  ditches  were  examined  by  him 
after  the  recent  heavy  rainfalls.  The  banks  of  the  earth  ditches  were 
badly  washed  where  the  water  ran  in ;  the  clay  puddle  was  slightly  so, 
but  the  oiled  ditches  showed  absolutely  no  sign  of  wash.  The  oil 
linings  are  all  hard  and  firm  and  scratch  almost  like  concrete. 

This  resistance  to  erosion  will  permit  in  a  saving  of  cross-sectional 
area  due  to  the  possibility  of  giving  the  water  an  increased  velocity. 
The  higher  velocity  will  prevent  the  deposition  of  silt  to  a  great  extent 
and  there  will  be  a  consequent  decrease  in  the  cost  of  operation  and 
maintenance. 


418  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

The  puddle  lining  in  the  experiment  showed  a  saving  in  seepage 
nearly  equal  to  the  heavy  oil  lining  when  3%  gallons  of  oil  per  square 
yard  was  used,  and  a  greater  saving  than  the  other  oil  linings.  This 
puddle  lining,  whose  thickness  was  3%  inches,  would,  no  doubt,  if  made 
thicker,  be  more  efficient  than  any  of  the  oil  linings  as  regards  seepage ; 
but  clay  puddle  when  wet  becomes  very  soft  and  will  not  resist  the 
erosive  force  of  the  flowing  water  unless  the  velocity  is  very  small. 
It  will  not  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds.  For  these  reasons  it  is 
probably  not  as  efficient  for  canal  linings  as  oil.  But  where  clay  is 
plentiful  it  would  be  preferable  for  reservoir  lining.  The  slopes  should, 
however,  be  protected  against  the  erosive  action  of  the  waves  by  the 
use  of  cobblestones  or  other  protection. 

The  use  of  oil  in  lighter  quantities,  while  not  very  efficient  in  pre- 
venting seepage,  will  no  doubt  prevent  the  growth  of  vegetation,  as 
illustrated  by  the  example  of  the  ditch  near  Lemoore.  In  this  case 
only  1%  gallons  per  square  yard  was  used  and  this  quantity  has  been 
sufficient  to  prevent  vegetation. 

Cement  mortar  plaster,  so  extensively  used  in  southern  California, 
showed  a  saving  in  seepage  water  of  63  per  cent.  Better  results  were 
expected,  and  it  is  probably  safe  to  expect  a  greater  saving  where  good 
work  is  done,  especially  where  the  work  is  constructed  in  cold  weather. 
This  lining  had  to  be  applied  when  the  temperature  in  the  field  was 
probably  110°  or  over.  The  cement  mortar  was  mixed  in  small  quantity 
and  quickly  applied.  As  soon  as  the  setting  had  started  the  lining  was 
sprinkled  and  covered  with  wet  canvas,  but  even  with  these  precautions 
better  work  could  be  done  in  cooler  weather. 

This  plaster,  while  very  efficient  and  economical  on  small  ditches, 
would  not  be  of  sufficient  thickness  and  strength  to  be  used  on  the 
larger  canals  and  laterals  of  larger  irrigation  systems,  where  a  thick- 
ness of  from  2  to  4  inches  would  no  doubt  be  successful. 


